From technique to normativity: the influence of Kant on Georges Canguilhem's philosophy of life.

Many historical studies tend to underline two central Kantian themes frequently emerging in Georges Canguilhem's works: (1) a conception of activity, primarily stemming from the Critique of Pure Reason, as a mental and abstract synthesis of judgment; and (2) a notion of organism, inspired by the Critique of Judgment, as an integral totality of parts. Canguilhem was particularly faithful to the first theme from the 1920s to the first half of the 1930s, whereas the second theme became important in the early 1940s. With this article, I will attempt to show that a third important theme of technique arose in the second half of the 30s also in the wake of Kant's philosophy, especially Sect. 43 of the Critique of Judgment. This section, which states that technical ability is distinguished from a theoretical faculty, led Canguilhem to a more concrete and practical conception of activity. I will then suggest that it was by considering technique that the concept of normativity, which characterizes Georges Canguilhem's philosophy of life, also took shape.

Empowerment: Freud, Canguilhem and Lacan on the ideal of health promotion.

Empowerment is a prominent ideal in health promotion. However, the exact meaning of this ideal is often not made explicit. In this paper, we outline an account of empowerment grounded in the human capacity to adapt and adjust to environmental and societal norms without being completely determined by those norms. Our account reveals a tension at the heart of empowerment between (a) the ability of self-governance and (b) the need to adapt and adjust to environmental and societal norms. We address this tension by drawing from the work of Freud, Canguilhem, and Lacan. First, we clarify through a discussion of Freud's notion of sublimation that it is difficult to assess empowerment independent of any social valuations, but also that it is no less problematic to make it dependent on social valuations alone. Second, we draw from the work of Canguilhem to show how empowerment can be understood in terms of the individual's capacity to tolerate the aggressions of a multiplicity of environments. Third, using Lacan, we show how empowerment requires incorporation of social and symbolic norms, without necessarily rendering ourselves a mere product of these norms. Finally, we demonstrate how the views of these authors can complement one another, resulting in a more sophisticated understanding of empowerment.

The Desirability of Difference: Georges Canguilhem and Body Integrity Identity Disorder.

Opponents of the provision of therapeutic, healthy limb amputation in Body Integrity Identity Disorder cases argue that such surgeries stand in contrast to the goal of medical practice - that of health restoration and maintenance. This paper refutes such a conclusion via an appeal to the nuanced and reflective model of health proposed by Georges Canguilhem. The paper examines the conceptual entanglement of the statistically common with the normatively desirable, arguing that a healthy body can take multiple forms, including that of an amputee, provided that such a form enables the continuing ability to initiate new norms of existence. It concludes that the practice of healthy limb amputation in cases of Body Integrity Identity Disorder is not only compatible with the goal of medicine but is potentially the only method of achieving this goal in the face of a complex and often mischaracterized disorder.

An Epistemology of Scientific Practice: Positioning Hans-Jörg Rheinberger in Twentieth-Century History and Philosophy of Biology.

In this article, I first outline the professionalization of the history and philosophy of biology from the 1960s onward. Then, I attempt to situate the work of Hans-Jörg Rheinberger with respect to this field. On the one hand, Rheinberger was marginal with respect to Anglo-American philosophical tradition; on the other, he was very influential in building up an integrated history and philosophy of the life sciences community at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin and beyond. This marginality results, I suggest, from three main sources: his use of concepts coming from continental traditions in the study of the life sciences, which are foreign to Anglo-American philosophers of science; his focus on practices instead of theories; and his research trajectory as a molecular biologist, which led him to be critical of disciplinary boundaries. As a first step in situating and historicizing Rheinberger's trajectory, this article invites comparative studies and calls for a history of "continental philosophy of biology" in the twentieth century.

Values in evolutionary biology: a comparison between the contemporary debate on organic progress and Canguilhem's biological philosophy.

The aim of this paper is to make a comparison and build up a dialogue between two different philosophical approaches to values in evolutionary biology. First, I present the approach proposed by Alexander Rosenberg and Daniel McShea in their contribution to the contemporary debate on organic progress. i.e. the idea that there has been some kind of improvement concerning organisms over the history of life. Discussing organic progress raises the question of what "better" exactly means. This requires an explicit clarification on what legitimately means to speak about "good" in evolutionary biology, thus to speak about values. Second, I move on to present an approach to values that has been proposed by Georges Canguilhem in the context of a different philosophical tradition (i.e. the "continental" tradition). Canguilhem's original theses are conceived in a Darwinian framework and clearly relate to the question of values in evolutionary biology. I shall then propose a comparison between these two heterogeneous perspectives on values by critically evaluating their common points and main differences. I will argue that both perspectives agree that the question of values in evolutionary biology takes on its full meaning with respect to the relationship between the organism and the environment. However, the framework for conceptualizing values in evolutionary biology provided by Rosenberg and McShea neglects a significant point highlighted by Canguilhem, i.e. the active role that the organism can play in evaluating the environment. In line with recent developments of biology (e.g. niche construction), this point can be easily integrated into Rosenberg and McShea's framework. Finally, I will point out some main differences between the two perspectives relative to the specificity of Canguilhem's biological philosophy.

A circulação de Georges Canguilhem no Brasil: para além do normal e patológico / The Circulation of Georges Canguilhem in Brazil: beyond the normal and the pathological

Georges Canguilhem (1904-1995), filósofo francês, possui uma extensa produção intelectual cuja importância percorre diferentes áreas do saber. Apesar da variedade de temas abordados pelo autor, parece prevalecer um discurso quase monotemático ­ quando se trata de seu pensamento no Brasil ­ relativo ao debate em torno de sua tese, O normal e o patológico. Tal fenômeno se relaciona aos processos de recepção e circulação de suas ideias, marcados pelo campo de construção da Saúde Coletiva brasileira. Por meio de pesquisa bibliográfica e entrevistas com intelectuais brasileiros protagonistas deste cenário, procurei investigar e construir uma parte da história de sua recepção e circulação no país a fim de apreender o movimento que alçou o discurso do normal e patológico como protagonista. Em paralelo, a construção desta narrativa permitiu revelar outras leituras, localizadas em campos e grupos externos à saúde. Tendo em vista alguns acontecimentos históricos e sociais particulares, o período privilegiado de análise compreendeu o início dos anos 70 até o final dos anos 90. Com efeito, as leituras de Georges Canguilhem no Brasil, apesar de protagonizadas pelo campo da saúde, não são unívocas e homogêneas e estão para além do normal e do patológico. Sendo assim, apresento cinco facetas que caracterizam este processo e permitem compreender a extensão e peculiaridade de sua circulação em território nacional: a) a História das Ciências na primeira metade da década de 70; b) o campo da Saúde Pública (mais adiante reconfigurada epistemologicamente como Saúde Coletiva) a partir de 1975; c) o campo psi desde o final dos anos 70; d) a história epistemológica apresentada por Roberto Machado no início dos anos 80; e) a leitura contemporânea empreendida entre o final dos anos 90 e o final dos anos 2000.

Georges Canguilhem (1904-1995), a French philosopher, has a vast intellectual production whose relevance goes through different fields of knowledge. Although the variety of subjects addressed by the author, it seems that virtually one topic prevails in his discourse ­ when it concerns his thought in Brazil ­ regarding the discussion about his proposition, The Normal and the Pathological. Such phenomenon is related to the processes of reception and circulation of his ideas, characterized by the setting field of Brazilian Collective Health. By the means of literature review and interviews with the leading Brazilian intellectuals in this set, I pursued investigating and conceiving a part of the history of its reception and circulation in the country in order to comprehend the movement that reached the normal and the pathological statement as a major speech. Simultaneously, this narrative conceiving enabled me to disclose literature from external fields and groups other than health's. Considering some particular historical and social events, the chosen period of analysis covers the early 1970s to late 1990s. In fact, Georges Canguilhem's literature in Brazil, although it is mainly studied in the field of Health, is not univocal and homogenous, it is beyond the normal and the pathological. Thus, I present five aspects that characterizes this process and enables comprehending the scope and the uniqueness of its circulation in Brazil: a) History of Sciences in the first half of 1970s; b) the public health field (that was later epistemologically set up as Collective Health) as from 1975; c) the fields of Psychology, Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis as from the late 1970; d) the epistemological history presented by Roberto Machado in early 1980s; e) the contemporary reading undertaken between the late 1990s and the late 2000s.

Can populations be healthy? Perspectives from Georges Canguilhem and Geoffrey Rose.

Canguilhem criticized the concept of "public health": health and disease are concepts that only apply to individuals, taken as organic totalities. Their extension to a different level of organization is purely metaphorical. The importance assumed by epidemiology in the construction of our knowledge of the normal and the pathological does, however, call for reflection on the role and the status of the population level of organization in our approach to health phenomena. The entanglement of the biological and the social in human life and in contemporary societies justifies this level of analysis for better understanding the complexity and the interaction of health determinants both at the level of individuals and their interactions and at that of the population. But is this population level just a useful level of analysis that makes it possible to bring to light the social determinants of health at the individual level, or does it rest instead on characteristics of the population that are irreducible to individual characteristics, but which are nevertheless important for understanding and taking action with respect to both population and individual health? Defending this second alternative, I show how the epidemiological point of view, and in particular that of social epidemiology, leads us to rethink the possibility of a concept of "population health" that is not reducible to the sum of individual instances of health.

Troubling Neurobiological Vulnerability: Psychiatric Risk and the Adverse Milieu in Environmental Epigenetics Research.

In post-genomic science, the development of etiological models of neurobiological vulnerability to psychiatric risk has expanded exponentially in recent decades, particularly since the neuromolecular and biosocial turns in basic research. Among this research is that of McGill Group for Suicide Studies (MGSS) whose work centers on the identification of major risk factors and epigenetic traits that help to identify a specific profile of vulnerability to psychiatric conditions (e.g., depression) and predict high-risk behaviors (e.g., suicidality). Although the MGSS has attracted attention for its environmental epigenetic models of suicide risk over the years and the translation of findings from rodent studies into human populations, its overall agenda includes multiple research axes, ranging from retrospective studies to clinical and epidemiological research. Common to these research axes is a concern with the long-term effects of adverse experiences on maladaptive trajectories and negative mental health outcomes. As these findings converge with post-genomic understandings of health and also translate into new orientations in global public health, our article queries the ways in which neurobiological vulnerability is traced, measured, and profiled in environmental epigenetics and in the MGSS research. Inspired by the philosophy of Georges Canguilhem and by literature from the social studies of risk and critical public health, we explore how the epigenetic models of neurobiological vulnerability tie into a particular way of thinking about the normal, the pathological, and the milieu in terms of risk. Through this exploration, we examine how early life adversity (ELA) and neurobiological vulnerability are localized and materialized in those emerging models while also considering their broader conceptual and translational implications in the contexts of mental health and global public health interventions. In particular, we consider how narratives of maladaptive trajectories and vulnerable selves who are at risk of harm might stand in as a "new pathological" with healthy trajectories and resilient selves being potentially equated with a "new normal" way of living in the face of adversity. By troubling neurobiological vulnerability as a universal biosocial condition, we suggest that an ecosocial perspective may help us to think differently about the dynamics of mental health and distress in the adverse milieu.

Women, Exercise, and Eating Disorder Recovery: The Normal and the Pathological.

The appropriate form, regularity, and intensity of exercise for individuals recovering from eating disorders is not agreed upon among health care professionals or researchers. When exercise is permitted, it is that which is mindful, embodied, and non-competitive that is considered normative. Using Canguilhem's concepts of "the normal and the pathological" as a theoretical frame, we examine the gendered assumptions that shape medical understandings of "healthy" and "dysfunctional" exercise in the context of recovery. The data set for this article comes from longitudinal semi-structured interviews with 19 women in the United Kingdom who engaged in weightlifting during their eating disorder recovery. We argue that women in recovery navigate multiple and conflicting value systems regarding exercise. Faced with aspects of exercise that are pathologized within the eating disorder literature (such as structure/routine, body transformations, and affect regulation), women re-inscribe positive value to these experiences, thus establishing exercise practices that serve them.

O que esperar da sociedade frente a uma pandemia? Freud-Canguilhem / What to expect from society facing a pandemic? Freud-Canguilhem

Diante das reações de negação à pandemia de Covid-19, bem como de desrespeito às recomendações sanitárias de isolamento social, procuramos, a partir de Sigmund Freud e de Georges Canguilhem, fornecer operadores conceituais para a circunscrição de tais movimentos, antagônicos à manutenção de uma vida em sociedade. Do primeiro autor, situamos como o fenômeno da regressão desencadeado diante de contingências ambientais revela vicissitudes na formação de uma coletividade engajada com ela mesma. Já do segundo, veremos como a sociedade, diferentemente de um órgão ou um organismo vivo, não possui finalidade intrínseca, gerando com isso infindáveis debates quanto a como deve ser seu ordenamento. Com isso, observamos que os movimentos de boicote às recomendações de autoridades de saúde são condizentes com uma sociedade pouco altruísta (Freud) e que somente sobrevive através de crises no que diz respeito a seus fins (Canguilhem). Ao final, colocamos que a noção de normatividade vital contribui para a proposição de uma vida em sociedade cuja criação e revisão incessante de seus modos de existência pode ser uma ferramenta para evitar, ou postergar, seu colapso.

Considering the denials to the Covid-19 pandemic, as well as the disrespect for the sanitary recommendations of social isolation, this work seeks to provide, from the perspective of Sigmund Freud and Georges Canguilhem, conceptual operators for the circumscription of such movements, antagonistics to the maintaining of a life in society. From a Freudian perspective, we situate how the phenomenon of regression triggered in the face of environmental contingencies reveals vicissitudes in the formation of a community engaged with itself. Considering Canguilhem's perspective, we will see how society, unlike a living organ or organism, has no intrinsic purpose, thereby generating endless debates about how its ordination should be. With that, we observed that the boycott movements to the recommendations of health authorities are consistent with a society that is not altruistic (Freud) and that only survives through crises regarding to its purposes (Canguilhem). In the end, we propose that the notion of vital normativity contributes to the proposition of a life in society whose creation and incessant review of their ways of existence can be a tool to prevent, or postpone, their collapse

"It's Never Too Early": Preconception Care and Postgenomic Models of Life.

In this article, we are concerned with the expanded public health interest in the "preconception period" as a window of opportunity for intervention to improve long-term population health outcomes. While definitions of the "preconception period" remain vague, new classifications and categories of life are becoming formalized as biomedicine begins to conduct research on, and suggest intervention in, this undefined and potentially unlimited time before conception. In particular, we focus on the burgeoning epidemiological interest in epigenetics and Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) research as simultaneously a theoretical spyglass into postgenomic biology and a catalyst toward a public health focus on preconception care. We historicize the notion that there are long-term implications of parental behaviors before conception, illustrating how, as Han and Das have noted, "newness comes to be embedded in older forms even as it transforms them" (Han and Das, 2015, p. 2). We then consider how DOHaD frameworks justify a number of fragmented claims about preconception by making novel evidentiary assertions. Engaging with the philosophy of Georges Canguilhem, we examine the relationship between reproductive risk and revised understandings of biological permeability, and discuss some of the epistemic and political implications of emerging claims in postgenomics.

O vitalismo hipocrático de Canguilhem / Canguilhem's Hippocratic vitalism

Resumo O vitalismo canguilhemiano não é evidente, tampouco é uma forma mais conhecida desse tipo de pensamento; não nasce das antigas diatribes que, do século XVIII, invadiram as polêmicas do XIX. Canguilhem reabilita o vitalismo a partir de uma abordagem ontológica única, para a qual ele não hesita em referenciar-se nos antigos e, de modo geral, num Hipócrates que, lido sobretudo por meio da história escrita por Charles Singer, traz à tona outros temas, como a crítica ao conceito de homeostase revivido e nomeado por Walter Cannon. Canguilhem redimensiona a homeostase hipocrática que Cannon cientificizou, dando-lhe uma mobilidade que lhe é conceitualmente essencial, e redesenha o projeto do vitalismo, recusando-lhe a antítese do mecanicismo. Dessa forma, Canguilhem foi buscar ou se respaldar num Hipócrates lido pelos historiadores da medicina (e das ciências biomédicas). Este artigo procurou mapear a contribuição de longa duração de Georges Canguilhem para o discurso médico, bem como seu papel fundador de uma nova concepção de normalidade a partir da sua concepção de vitalismo, que, para ele, é herdeira de um "espírito hipocrático".

Abstract Canguilhem's vitalism is not obvious, neither does is consist of a more known form of this type of thinking; it does not come from the old diatribes that, coming from the 19th century, are still relevant to the 20th century's discussions. Canguilhem reclaims vitalism from a unique ontological approach, and does not hesitate to allude to the classics and, most of all, to a Hippocrates that, read mainly through the perspective of the history written by Charles Singer, brings to light other themes such as the critic to the concept of homeostasis revitalized and named by Walter Cannon. Canguilhem gives another perspective to Hippocrates' homeostasis, that was "scientified" by Cannon, giving it mobility that is considered essential to its concept and redraws the vitalism project, rejecting the place of mechanism antithesis. This paper aimed to map Canguilhem's longue durée contribution to the medical discourse, as well as his funding role of a new conception of normality formulated from his own interpretation of a vitalism that, in his point of view, comes from a "Hippocratic spirit".

Saúde é colocar-se em risco: normatividade vital em Georges Canguilhem / Health is putting oneself at risk: vital normativity in Georges Canguilhem

Resumo Este artigo objetiva apresentar uma crítica ao modelo biomédico de saúde predominante nas ciências médicas, a partir do conceito de normatividade vital, proposto por Georges Canguilhem. Na introdução apresentamos, a partir de um breve histórico do conceito de saúde, a normalização como o primado fundamental do modelo biomédico. Na primeira parte, discutimos o problema da determinação do normal e do patológico, da saúde e da doença, no pensamento de Canguilhem, buscando situar esses conceitos em função de valores individuais, questionando a existência de um processo normativo em biologia. Na segunda parte, pretende-se demonstrar que a normatividade vital defendida por Canguilhem é uma ferramenta conceitual fundamental para o entendimento da lógica de produção biológica. Esta lógica de produção não toma a norma como critério de valoração das formas de vida possíveis. Não são as individualidades biológicas que se adéquam ou se afastam das normas, mas, ao contrário, é a individualidade biológica enquanto potência de criação de novas formas que produz o processo de sua normatividade. Por fim, destacamos o impacto crítico do conceito de saúde entendido como uma abertura ao risco, enfatizando essa dimensão da saúde como a capacidade de enfrentar novas situações de vida.

Abstract This article aims to criticize the biomedical health model prevalent in medical sciences, based on the concept of vital normativity proposed by Georges Canguilhem. In the introduction we present, from a brief history of the health concept, normalization as the fundamental primacy of the biomedical model. In the first part, we discuss the problem of determining normal and pathological, health and illness in Canguilhem's thought, seeking to situate these concepts in function of individual values, questioning the existence of a normative process in Biology. In the second part, it aims to demonstrate that the vital normativity advocated by Canguilhem is a fundamental conceptual tool for the understanding of organic production logic. This production logic in Biology does not take the norm as criterion for valuing possible forms of life. Biological individuals do not fit or deviate from the rules, but biological individuality, as a power of generating new ways, produces the normativity process. Finally, we highlight the critical impact of the concept of health understood as an openness to risk, emphasizing this dimension of health as capacity to face new situations of life.

The erudite humility of the historian: the 'critical epistemology' of Georges Lantéri-Laura.

This paper analyses the historical and epistemological work of the French psychiatrist Georges Lantéri-Laura (1930-2004) within the context of the French 'tradition' of history and philosophy of sciences, with special reference to Georges Canguilhem and Michel Foucault. After an introduction devoted to a critical survey of the most recent works on the history and historiography of psychiatry in French, the paper outlines Lantéri-Laura's approach by focusing especially on the role played by the methodological concept of 'semiology' as regards the relation between medicine and psychiatry. The last part of the paper draws attention to the relation between the history and philosophy of psychiatry in light of Lantéri-Laura's 'critical epistemology'.

Forms of presentism in the history of science. Rethinking the project of historical epistemology.

Since the late 1980s, presentism has seen a resurgence among some historians of science. Most of them draw a line between a good form of presentism and typical anachronism, but where the line should be drawn remains an open question. The present article aims at resolving this problem. In the first part I define the four main distinct forms of presentism at work in the history of science and the different purposes they serve. Based on this typology, the second part reconsiders what counts as anachronism, Whiggism and positivist history. This clarification is used as a basis to rethink the research program of historical epistemology in the third section. Throughout this article, I examine the conceptual core of historical epistemology more than its actual history, from Bachelard to Foucault or others. Its project should be defined - as Canguilhem suggested - as an attempt to account for both the contingency and the rationality of science. As such, historical epistemology is based on a complex fifth form of presentism, which I call critical presentism. The critical relation at stake not only works from the present to the past, because of the acknowledged rationality of science, but also from the past to the present because of the contingency and historicity of scientific knowledge.

Vitalism as Pathos.

This paper addresses the remarkable longevity (in spite of numerous 'refutations') of the idea of vitalism in the biological sciences and beyond. If there is to be a renewed vitalism today, however, we need to ask - on what kind of original conception of life should it be based? This paper argues that recent invocations of a generalized, processual variety of vitalism in the social sciences and humanities above all, however exciting in their scope, miss much of the basic originality - and interest - of the vitalist perspective itself. The paper argues that any renewed spirit of vitalism in the contemporary era would have to base itself on the normativity of the living organism rather than on any generalized conceptions of process or becoming. In the terms of the paper, such a vitalism would have to be concrete and 'disciplinary' rather than processual or generalized. Such a vitalism would also need to accommodate, crucially, the pathic aspects of life - pathology, sickness, error; in short everything that makes us, as living beings, potentially weak, without power, at a loss. Sources for such a pathic vitalism might be found above all in the work of Georges Canguilhem - and Friedrich Nietzsche - rather than primarily in Bergson, Whitehead or Deleuze.

La vida como actividad normativa y auto-realización: debate en torno al concepto de normatividad biológica en Goldstein y Canguilhem / Life as regulatory activity and self-realization: debate surrounding the concept of biological regulation in Goldstein and Canguilhem

La influencia de Kurt Goldstein en el pensamiento de Georges Canguilhem se extendió a lo largo de toda su obra. El presente trabajo pretende recuperar esta relación con el objeto de realizar un estudio de la norma como nexo o conexión entre el concepto y la vida. En consecuencia, este trabajo será una reflexión sobre el planteamiento de la vida como actividad normativa y autorealización. Para ello, será necesario resignificar los conceptos de salud y enfermedad, y atravesar el camino que va de uno a otro. Al final de este camino, se encontrará que estos conceptos permiten explicar la identidad entre el concepto y la vida, lo cual conduce a la conclusión inesperada que la cura es, en definitiva, autocuración.

The influence of Kurt Goldstein on the thinking of Georges Canguilhem extended throughout his entire work. This paper seeks to examine this relationship in order to conduct a study of the norm as a nexus or connection between the concept and life. Consequently, this work will be a reflection on the approach to life as a regulatory activity and self-realization. For this, it will be necessary to redefine the concepts of health and disease, and make a crossover between the two. At the end of this trajectory, it will be found that these concepts can explain the identity between the concept and life, which leads to the unexpected conclusion that the cure is ultimately self-healing.

Narrative and epistemology: Georges Canguilhem's concept of scientific ideology.

In the late 1960s, Georges Canguilhem introduced the concept of 'scientific ideology'. This concept had not played any role in his previous work, so why introduce it at all? This is the central question of my paper. Although it may seem a rather modest question, its answer in fact uncovers hidden tensions in the tradition of historical epistemology, in particular between its normative and descriptive aspects. The term ideology suggests the influence of Althusser's and Foucault's philosophies. However, I show the differences between Canguilhem's concept of scientific ideology and Althusser's and Foucault's respective concepts of ideology. I argue that Canguilhem was in fact attempting to solve long-standing problems in the tradition of historical epistemology, rather than following the lead of his younger colleagues. I argue that Canguilhem's 'refurbishment without rejection' of Bachelard's epistemology, which the concept of scientific ideology was aimed to implement, was necessary to justify the historical narratives that Canguilhem had constructed in his own work as a historian of concepts. A strict acceptance of Bachelard's epistemology would have made it impossible to justify them. Canguilhem's concept of scientific ideology therefore served as a theoretical justification of his practice as a historian. I maintain that the concept of scientific ideology was needed to reconcile Bachelard's normative epistemology with Canguilhem's view of the history of science and its aims, which differed from Bachelard's more than it is generally acknowledged.

A tensão naturalismo/normativismo no campo da definição da doença / The tension between naturalism and normativism in the field of defining diseases / La tension naturalisme/normativisme dans le domaine de la définition de la maladie / La tensión naturalismo/normativismo en el campo de la definición de la enfermedad

Vemos uma tendência da psiquiatria contemporânea de reduzir a experiência subjetiva da doença a achados neurofisiológicos. Na contramão desse movimento estão os trabalhos de Bill Fulford e Georges Canguilhem. O primeiro aposta na precedência da illness sobre a disease; Canguilhem defende a ideia de que o pathos precede o logos e ambos afirmam a inseparabilidade entre fatos e valores. Trazem, assim, a ênfase na dimensão sócio-simbólica da experiência subjetiva, marcando a centralidade da clínica para a interrogação sobre o sofrimento humano.(AU)

A trend can be seen in contemporary psychiatry toward reducing the subjective experience of illness to neurophysiological findings. Research by Bill Fulford and Georges Canguilhem goes against this trend. Fulford holds that illness comes before disease, while Canguilhem defends the idea that illness precedes disease. They both hold to the inseparability of facts and values. They emphasize the socio-symbolic dimension of subjective experience, thus stressing the importance of clinical approaches for dealing with human suffering.(AU)

On observe dans la psychiatrie contemporaine une tendance à réduire l'expérience subjective de la maladie à des découvertes neurophysiologiques. Les travaux de Bill Fulford et de Georges Canguilhem se situent à contrecourant de ce mouvement. Le premier revendique l'antécédence de la illness par rapport à la disease. Canguilhem soutient que le pathos précède le logos et tous deux affirment l'inséparabilité entre les faits et les valeurs. Ils mettent ainsi en avant la dimension socio-symbolique de l'expérience subjective et soulignent la centralité de la clinique pour la réflexion sur la souffrance humaine.(AU)

Observamos una tendencia de la psiquiatría contemporánea en reducir la experiencia subjetiva de la enfermedad a hallazgos neurofisiológicos. En dirección contraria a ese movimiento están los trabajos de Bill Fulford y Georges Canguilhem. El primero apuesta por la precedencia de la illness sobre la disease; Canguilhem defiende la idea de que el pathos precede al logos y ambos afirman la inseparabilidad entre hechos y valores. Traen, así, el énfasis en la dimensión socio-simbólica de la experiencia subjetiva, marcando la centralidad de la clínica para la investigación del sufrimiento humano.(AU)

A tensão naturalismo/normativismo no campo da definição da doença / The tension between naturalism and normativism in the field of defining diseases / La tension naturalisme/normativisme dans le domaine de la définition de la maladie / La tensión naturalismo/normativismo en el campo de la definición de la enfermedad

Vemos uma tendência da psiquiatria contemporânea de reduzir a experiência subjetiva da doença a achados neurofisiológicos. Na contramão desse movimento estão os trabalhos de Bill Fulford e Georges Canguilhem. O primeiro aposta na precedência da illness sobre a disease; Canguilhem defende a ideia de que o pathos precede o logos e ambos afirmam a inseparabilidade entre fatos e valores. Trazem, assim, a ênfase na dimensão sócio-simbólica da experiência subjetiva, marcando a centralidade da clínica para a interrogação sobre o sofrimento humano.

A trend can be seen in contemporary psychiatry toward reducing the subjective experience of illness to neurophysiological findings. Research by Bill Fulford and Georges Canguilhem goes against this trend. Fulford holds that illness comes before disease, while Canguilhem defends the idea that illness precedes disease. They both hold to the inseparability of facts and values. They emphasize the socio-symbolic dimension of subjective experience, thus stressing the importance of clinical approaches for dealing with human suffering.

On observe dans la psychiatrie contemporaine une tendance à réduire l'expérience subjective de la maladie à des découvertes neurophysiologiques. Les travaux de Bill Fulford et de Georges Canguilhem se situent à contrecourant de ce mouvement. Le premier revendique l'antécédence de la illness par rapport à la disease. Canguilhem soutient que le pathos précède le logos et tous deux affirment l'inséparabilité entre les faits et les valeurs. Ils mettent ainsi en avant la dimension socio-symbolique de l'expérience subjective et soulignent la centralité de la clinique pour la réflexion sur la souffrance humaine.

Observamos una tendencia de la psiquiatría contemporánea en reducir la experiencia subjetiva de la enfermedad a hallazgos neurofisiológicos. En dirección contraria a ese movimiento están los trabajos de Bill Fulford y Georges Canguilhem. El primero apuesta por la precedencia de la illness sobre la disease; Canguilhem defiende la idea de que el pathos precede al logos y ambos afirman la inseparabilidad entre hechos y valores. Traen, así, el énfasis en la dimensión socio-simbólica de la experiencia subjetiva, marcando la centralidad de la clínica para la investigación del sufrimiento humano.